School of Social & Political Sciences

Political theorists such as Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill and Carole Pateman can help us to understand and directly address the roots of this dangerous ideology

In April 2018, 25-year-old Alek Minassian drove a van onto a busy Toronto sidewalk, killing 10 people and injuring 16 others. Before the attack, he posted a cryptic message online referring to the "Incel Rebellion". This was not an isolated case. Several violent attacks have been linked to incels over the past decade. But what drives this apparently new and dangerous ideology? The established tradition of liberal feminism can help us provide some answers here. Feminist thinkers such as Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill and Carole Pateman, can help us to explain the rise of incel behaviour and what can be done about it.

What is the Incel Movement?

The term "incel" originally emerged in the early 1990s as a way for lonely individuals (regardless of gender) to share their struggles about dating and intimacy. However, in the 2010s, the term was changed by an increasingly online community of men who saw their lack of sexual and romantic success as a direct result of the increasing power of women in society.

Incels, or "involuntary celibates", often blame feminism for their perceived social and romantic struggles, arguing that increased sexual freedom for women has led to their exclusion from the dating pool. They claim that in a pre-feminist society, traditional gender roles ensured that all men, regardless of attractiveness or status, had access to romantic or sexual partners. However, they believe that modern feminism has corrupted this dynamic by empowering women to choose their own partners, leaving some men feeling abandoned and unwanted. 

More extreme groups within the incel community advocate for more extreme measures to restore what they see as a lost social order. Some propose state-enforced monogamy, wherein the government would ensure that all men would have access to romantic relationships, while others promote more radical ideas, including the restriction of women's rights, or, in extreme caes, acts of violence as a form of punishment for their participation in the rejection of incel men. Their belief is often reinforced by online communities that create a sense of shared victimhood, fuelling anger and resentment toward women and society at large. While not all individuals who identify as incels support violent actions, the movement is deeply rooted in misogyny, entitlement, and bitterness. In a conversation with a BBC journalist, an unnamed incel reflected on whether "he hates women". He responded "I try not to, but sometimes I catch myself saying things I shouldn't, influenced by the forums I've been browsing."

The worldwide movement begs the question: why do some men feel so entitled to women's attention, and why do they react with such hostility when they don't receive it? Liberal feminist theories offer some explanation to these questions.

Liberal Feminism and Gender Equality

Liberal feminism is a branch of feminist thought that seeks to establish gender equality through legal and social reforms. It focuses on individual rights, equal opportunities, and dismantling systematic sexism in institutions like education, the workplace, and the family. Unlike radical feminism, which often critiques the very structure of the patriarchy, liberal feminists argue that change is possible within institutions. Three key liberal feminist thinkers: Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill (along with Harriet Taylor Mill), and Carole Pateman, provide insights into the social conditions that have led to the rise of the incel movement. 

Mary Wollstonecraft: Gender Socialization and the Failure of Male Education

Mary Wollstonecraft, often considered one of the earliest liberal feminists, wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), where she argued that women were not naturally inferior to men but were made so through inadequate education and restrictive social roles. She called for equal education and for both men and women to be raised as rational, independent individuals. 

Wollstonecraft's ideas can help explain the incel phenomenon. According to Wollstonecraft's idea incels are not simply victims of unlucky dating circumstances: they are products of a culture that has failed to teach men emotional resilience and equality in relationships. Many incels express frustrations that women are no longer "choosing" them, but this frustration is rooted in an outdated belief that men are entitled to a women's attention. If boys were raised to see women as equal partners rather than prizes to be won, they might be better equipped to handle rejection without resentment. 

In short, Wollstonecraft would argue that the real problem is not the growth of female empowerment due to modern feminism, but the way society has failed to prepare men for a world where women have agency.

John Stuart Mill & Harriet Taylor Mill: The Illusion of Male Entitlement

John Stuart Mill and his wife, Harriet Taylor Mill, were outspoken advocates for gender equality. In The Subjection of Women (1869), Mill argued that the legal and social subordination of women was a major barrier to progress and happiness for both genders. He believed that true happiness and social harmony could only be achieved when men and women are treated as equals. 

Mill's arguments challenge the core assumptions of incel ideology. Incels operate under the idea that they are entitled to relationships and sex, and that women should be obliged to provide them. Mill would argue that this belief is a holdover from patriarchal traditions where women were seen as male property. As women gain legal and social independence, men who still cling to the outdated ideas of gender roles feel left behind. 

This is a crucial point. It is not feminism that is making some men feel miserable. The patriarchy is. The belief that men must dominate women to have fulfilling relationships is itself the root of incel frustrations. According to the liberal feminist perspective, if men embrace gender equality, they might see relationships as partnerships rather than transactions, reducing their sense of loneliness and feelings of inferiority. 

Carole Pateman: The Sexual Contract and Male Entitlement

Carole Pateman, a celebrated liberal feminist theorist, expands on these ideas in The Sexual Contract (1988). She argues that traditional social contracts have always included a "sexual contract", an implication agreement that men will have access to women's bodies in exchange for protection, resources, or marriage. 

Incel ideology reflects the frustration of men who feel the traditional expectations for relationships have changed. Women are no longer obligated to marry or provide to men but instead have the freedom to make their own choices. For incels, this feels like a personal betrayal. In reality, it is simply a sign that society is evolving beyond patriarchal norms. Pateman's work suggest that incel violence is a reactionary response to the crumbling of male privilege and dominance. Rather than seeing this is as a loss, a liberal feminist perspective argues that men should embrace the opportunity to form relationships based on mutual respect rather than coercion or entitlement. 

Why This Matter: The Real-World Consequences of Incel Ideology

Understanding incel behaviour through the lens of liberal feminism isn't just a theoretical exercise. It has real-world consequences. The incel movement has been linked to multiple violent attacks, while online communities continue to radicalize young men, particularly through popular platforms like TikTokk, by spreading and reinforcing misogynstic beliefs.

Liberal feminist approaches not only help us to understand where the incel ideology comes from but how we might also respond to it. Drawing on thinkers such as Wollstonecraft, Mill and Pateman, we might make the following recommendations:

• Better Education: Schools should teach emotional intelligence, consent, and healthy relationships to foster mutual respect
• Challenging Toxic Masculinity: Incel ideology stems from rigid masculinity, not feminism. Promoting equality and emotional growth can help counter it.
• Redefining Equality: Gender equality isn't a win-lose game, it creates relationships based on connection, not power struggles. 

Conclusion

The incel movement isn't just a backlash against feminism, it's a sign of deeper problems in society, like strict gender roles and outdated ideas about male entitlement. From a liberal feminist perspective, the issue isn't that women have more freedom, but that some men struggle to adjust to a world where women have choices. Thinkers like Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill, and Carole Pateman help explain how gender expectations and a sense of entitlement have fuelled this frustration and the appeal of the incel movement. In the end, feminism isn't about taking anything away from men. It's about creating a society where everyone can build real, meaningful connections based on respect rather than on outdated power asymmetries. That is surely a world we can all get behind - and one in which the dangerous ideology of the incels would struggle to take root.

 

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This blog is part of the SPS Student Academic Blog series. You can read more contributions from the series here.

First published: 12 May 2025